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<div class="quarto-title">
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<h1 class="title">Chapter 2 Notes</h1>
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<div>
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<div class="quarto-title-meta-heading">Author</div>
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<div class="quarto-title-meta-contents">
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<p>Emanuel Rodriguez </p>
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</div>
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</header>
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<p>In this chapter we step through an example of “fake” vs “real” news to build a framework to determine the probability of real vs fake of a new news article titled “The President has a secret!”</p>
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<div class="cell">
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<div class="sourceCode cell-code" id="cb1"><pre class="sourceCode r code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb1-1"><a href="#cb1-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># libraries</span></span>
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<span id="cb1-2"><a href="#cb1-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(bayesrules)</span>
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<span id="cb1-3"><a href="#cb1-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(dplyr)</span>
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<span id="cb1-4"><a href="#cb1-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(tidyr)</span>
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<span id="cb1-5"><a href="#cb1-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(gt)</span>
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<span id="cb1-6"><a href="#cb1-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">data</span>(fake_news)</span>
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<span id="cb1-7"><a href="#cb1-7" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>fake_news <span class="ot"><-</span> tibble<span class="sc">::</span><span class="fu">as_tibble</span>(fake_news)</span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
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</div>
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<p>What is the proportion of news articles that were labeled fake vs real.</p>
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<div class="cell">
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<div class="sourceCode cell-code" id="cb2"><pre class="sourceCode r code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb2-1"><a href="#cb2-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>fake_news <span class="sc">|></span> <span class="fu">glimpse</span>()</span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
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<div class="cell-output cell-output-stdout">
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<pre><code>Rows: 150
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Columns: 30
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$ title <chr> "Clinton's Exploited Haiti Earthquake ‘to Stea…
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$ text <chr> "0 SHARES Facebook Twitter\n\nBernard Sansaric…
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$ url <chr> "http://freedomdaily.com/former-haitian-senate…
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$ authors <chr> NA, NA, "Sierra Marlee", "Jack Shafer,Nolan D"…
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$ type <fct> fake, real, fake, real, fake, real, fake, fake…
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$ title_words <int> 17, 18, 16, 11, 9, 12, 11, 18, 10, 13, 10, 11,…
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$ text_words <int> 219, 509, 494, 268, 479, 220, 184, 500, 677, 4…
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$ title_char <int> 110, 95, 96, 60, 54, 66, 86, 104, 66, 81, 59, …
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$ text_char <int> 1444, 3016, 2881, 1674, 2813, 1351, 1128, 3112…
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$ title_caps <int> 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 2, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0…
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$ text_caps <int> 1, 1, 3, 3, 0, 0, 0, 12, 12, 1, 2, 5, 1, 1, 6,…
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$ title_caps_percent <dbl> 0.000000, 0.000000, 6.250000, 0.000000, 0.0000…
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$ text_caps_percent <dbl> 0.4566210, 0.1964637, 0.6072874, 1.1194030, 0.…
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$ title_excl <int> 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0…
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$ text_excl <int> 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0…
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$ title_excl_percent <dbl> 0.0000000, 0.0000000, 2.0833333, 0.0000000, 0.…
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$ text_excl_percent <dbl> 0.00000000, 0.00000000, 0.06942034, 0.00000000…
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$ title_has_excl <lgl> FALSE, FALSE, TRUE, FALSE, FALSE, FALSE, FALSE…
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$ anger <dbl> 4.24, 2.28, 1.18, 4.66, 0.82, 1.29, 2.56, 3.47…
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$ anticipation <dbl> 2.12, 1.71, 2.16, 1.79, 1.23, 0.43, 2.05, 1.74…
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$ disgust <dbl> 2.54, 1.90, 0.98, 1.79, 0.41, 1.72, 2.05, 1.35…
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$ fear <dbl> 3.81, 1.90, 1.57, 4.30, 0.82, 0.43, 5.13, 4.25…
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$ joy <dbl> 1.27, 1.71, 1.96, 0.36, 1.23, 0.86, 1.54, 1.35…
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$ sadness <dbl> 4.66, 1.33, 0.78, 1.79, 0.82, 0.86, 2.05, 1.93…
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$ surprise <dbl> 2.12, 1.14, 1.18, 1.79, 0.82, 0.86, 1.03, 1.35…
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$ trust <dbl> 2.97, 4.17, 3.73, 2.51, 2.46, 2.16, 5.13, 3.86…
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$ negative <dbl> 8.47, 4.74, 3.33, 6.09, 2.66, 3.02, 4.10, 4.63…
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$ positive <dbl> 3.81, 4.93, 5.49, 2.15, 4.30, 2.16, 4.10, 4.25…
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$ text_syllables <int> 395, 845, 806, 461, 761, 376, 326, 891, 1133, …
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$ text_syllables_per_word <dbl> 1.803653, 1.660118, 1.631579, 1.720149, 1.5887…</code></pre>
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</div>
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<div class="sourceCode cell-code" id="cb4"><pre class="sourceCode r code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb4-1"><a href="#cb4-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>fake_news <span class="sc">|></span></span>
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<span id="cb4-2"><a href="#cb4-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">group_by</span>(type) <span class="sc">|></span> </span>
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<span id="cb4-3"><a href="#cb4-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">summarise</span>(</span>
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<span id="cb4-4"><a href="#cb4-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="at">total =</span> <span class="fu">n</span>(),</span>
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<span id="cb4-5"><a href="#cb4-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="at">prop =</span> total <span class="sc">/</span> <span class="fu">nrow</span>(fake_news)</span>
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<span id="cb4-6"><a href="#cb4-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> ) </span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
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<div class="cell-output cell-output-stdout">
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<pre><code># A tibble: 2 × 3
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type total prop
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<fct> <int> <dbl>
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1 fake 60 0.4
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2 real 90 0.6</code></pre>
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</div>
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</div>
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<p>If we let <span class="math inline">\(B\)</span> be the event that a news article is “fake” news, and <span class="math inline">\(B^c\)</span> be the event that a news article is “real”, we can write the following:</p>
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<p><span class="math display">\[P(B) = .4\]</span> <span class="math display">\[P(B^c) = .6\]</span></p>
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<p>This is the first “clue” or set of data that we have to build into our framework. Namely, majority of articles are “real”, therefore we could simply predict that the new article is “real”. This updated sense or reality now becomes our priors.</p>
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<p>Getting additional data, and updating our priors, based on additional data. The new observation we make is the use of exclamation marks “!”. We note that the use of “!” is more frequent in news articles labeled as “fake”. We will want to incorporate this into our framework to decide whether the new incoming should be labelled as real or fake.</p>
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<section id="likelihood" class="level3">
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<h3 class="anchored" data-anchor-id="likelihood">Likelihood</h3>
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<div class="callout-note callout callout-style-default no-icon callout-captioned">
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<div class="callout-header d-flex align-content-center">
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<div class="callout-icon-container">
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<i class="callout-icon no-icon"></i>
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</div>
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<div class="callout-caption-container flex-fill">
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Probability and Likelihood
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</div>
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</div>
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<div class="callout-body-container callout-body">
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<p>When the event <span class="math inline">\(B\)</span> is known, then we can evaluate the uncertainy of events <span class="math inline">\(A\)</span> and <span class="math inline">\(A^c\)</span> given <span class="math inline">\(B\)</span></p>
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<p><span class="math display">\[P(A|B) \text{ vs } P(A^c|B)\]</span></p>
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<p>If on the other hand, we know event <span class="math inline">\(A\)</span> then we can evaluate the relative compatability of data <span class="math inline">\(A\)</span> with <span class="math inline">\(B\)</span> and <span class="math inline">\(B^c\)</span> using likelihood functions</p>
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<p><span class="math display">\[L(B|A) \text{ vs } L(B^c|A)\]</span> <span class="math display">\[=P(A|B) \text{ vs } P(A|B^c)\]</span></p>
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</div>
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</div>
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<p>So in our case, we don’t know whether this new incoming article is real or not, but we do know that the title has an exclamation mark. This means we can evaluate how likely this article is real or not given that it contains an “!” in the title using likelihood functions. We can formualte this as:</p>
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<p><span class="math display">\[L(B|A) \text{ vs } L(B^c|A)\]</span></p>
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<p>And perform the computation in R as follows:</p>
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<div class="cell">
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<div class="sourceCode cell-code" id="cb6"><pre class="sourceCode r code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb6-1"><a href="#cb6-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># if fake, what are the proprotions of ! vs no-!</span></span>
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<span id="cb6-2"><a href="#cb6-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>prop_of_excl_within_type <span class="ot"><-</span> fake_news <span class="sc">|></span></span>
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<span id="cb6-3"><a href="#cb6-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">group_by</span>(type, title_has_excl) <span class="sc">|></span></span>
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<span id="cb6-4"><a href="#cb6-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">summarise</span>(</span>
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<span id="cb6-5"><a href="#cb6-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="at">total =</span> <span class="fu">n</span>()</span>
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<span id="cb6-6"><a href="#cb6-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> ) <span class="sc">|></span></span>
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<span id="cb6-7"><a href="#cb6-7" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">ungroup</span>() <span class="sc">|></span></span>
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<span id="cb6-8"><a href="#cb6-8" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">group_by</span>(type) <span class="sc">|></span></span>
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<span id="cb6-9"><a href="#cb6-9" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">summarise</span>(</span>
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<span id="cb6-10"><a href="#cb6-10" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="at">has_excl =</span> title_has_excl,</span>
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<span id="cb6-11"><a href="#cb6-11" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="at">prop_within_type =</span> total <span class="sc">/</span> <span class="fu">sum</span>(total)</span>
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<span id="cb6-12"><a href="#cb6-12" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> ) </span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
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</div>
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||
<div class="cell">
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<div class="sourceCode cell-code" id="cb7"><pre class="sourceCode r code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb7-1"><a href="#cb7-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>prop_of_excl_within_type <span class="sc">|></span></span>
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<span id="cb7-2"><a href="#cb7-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">pivot_wider</span>(<span class="at">names_from =</span> <span class="st">"type"</span>, <span class="at">values_from =</span> prop_within_type) <span class="sc">|></span></span>
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<span id="cb7-3"><a href="#cb7-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">gt</span>() <span class="sc">|></span></span>
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<span id="cb7-4"><a href="#cb7-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> gt<span class="sc">::</span><span class="fu">cols_label</span>(</span>
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<span id="cb7-5"><a href="#cb7-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="at">has_excl =</span> <span class="st">"Contains Exclamtion"</span>,</span>
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<span id="cb7-6"><a href="#cb7-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="at">fake =</span> <span class="st">"Fake"</span>, </span>
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<span id="cb7-7"><a href="#cb7-7" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="at">real =</span> <span class="st">"Real"</span>) <span class="sc">|></span></span>
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<span id="cb7-8"><a href="#cb7-8" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> gt<span class="sc">::</span><span class="fu">fmt_number</span>(<span class="at">columns=</span><span class="fu">c</span>(<span class="st">"fake"</span>, <span class="st">"real"</span>), <span class="at">decimals =</span> <span class="dv">3</span>) <span class="sc">|></span></span>
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<span id="cb7-9"><a href="#cb7-9" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> gt<span class="sc">::</span><span class="fu">cols_width</span>(<span class="fu">everything</span>() <span class="sc">~</span> <span class="fu">px</span>(<span class="dv">100</span>))</span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
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<div class="cell-output-display">
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<div id="bwyculjrlm" style="overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:auto;width:auto;height:auto;">
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<style>html {
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font-family: -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', 'Fira Sans', 'Droid Sans', Arial, sans-serif;
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}
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color: #333333;
|
||
font-size: 16px;
|
||
font-weight: normal;
|
||
font-style: normal;
|
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background-color: #FFFFFF;
|
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width: auto;
|
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border-top-style: solid;
|
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border-top-width: 2px;
|
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border-top-color: #A8A8A8;
|
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border-right-width: 2px;
|
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border-right-color: #D3D3D3;
|
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|
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border-bottom-width: 2px;
|
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border-bottom-color: #A8A8A8;
|
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|
||
border-left-width: 2px;
|
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border-left-color: #D3D3D3;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_heading {
|
||
background-color: #FFFFFF;
|
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text-align: center;
|
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|
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|
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|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_title {
|
||
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_subtitle {
|
||
color: #333333;
|
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font-size: 85%;
|
||
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|
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|
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|
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|
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}
|
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|
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border-bottom-style: solid;
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|
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}
|
||
|
||
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|
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|
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}
|
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|
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|
||
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|
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|
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|
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|
||
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|
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
|
||
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|
||
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|
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||
|
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||
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|
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|
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
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|
||
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|
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}
|
||
|
||
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|
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|
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|
||
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
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||
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||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_stub {
|
||
color: #333333;
|
||
background-color: #FFFFFF;
|
||
font-size: 100%;
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
padding-left: 5px;
|
||
padding-right: 5px;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_stub_row_group {
|
||
color: #333333;
|
||
background-color: #FFFFFF;
|
||
font-size: 100%;
|
||
font-weight: initial;
|
||
text-transform: inherit;
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
padding-left: 5px;
|
||
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|
||
vertical-align: top;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_row_group_first td {
|
||
border-top-width: 2px;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_summary_row {
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_first_summary_row {
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_grand_summary_row {
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_table_body {
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_footnotes {
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_sourcenotes {
|
||
color: #333333;
|
||
background-color: #FFFFFF;
|
||
border-bottom-style: none;
|
||
border-bottom-width: 2px;
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
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|
||
border-right-width: 2px;
|
||
border-right-color: #D3D3D3;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_sourcenote {
|
||
font-size: 90%;
|
||
padding-top: 4px;
|
||
padding-bottom: 4px;
|
||
padding-left: 5px;
|
||
padding-right: 5px;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_left {
|
||
text-align: left;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_center {
|
||
text-align: center;
|
||
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|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_right {
|
||
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|
||
font-variant-numeric: tabular-nums;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
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|
||
font-weight: normal;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
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|
||
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|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_font_italic {
|
||
font-style: italic;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_super {
|
||
font-size: 65%;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_footnote_marks {
|
||
font-style: italic;
|
||
font-weight: normal;
|
||
font-size: 75%;
|
||
vertical-align: 0.4em;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_asterisk {
|
||
font-size: 100%;
|
||
vertical-align: 0;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_indent_1 {
|
||
text-indent: 5px;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_indent_2 {
|
||
text-indent: 10px;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_indent_3 {
|
||
text-indent: 15px;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_indent_4 {
|
||
text-indent: 20px;
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
#bwyculjrlm .gt_indent_5 {
|
||
text-indent: 25px;
|
||
}
|
||
</style>
|
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<table class="gt_table" style="table-layout: fixed;; width: 0px">
|
||
<colgroup>
|
||
<col style="width:100px;">
|
||
<col style="width:100px;">
|
||
<col style="width:100px;">
|
||
</colgroup>
|
||
|
||
<thead class="gt_col_headings">
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_center" rowspan="1" colspan="1" scope="col">Contains Exclamtion</th>
|
||
<th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_right" rowspan="1" colspan="1" scope="col">Fake</th>
|
||
<th class="gt_col_heading gt_columns_bottom_border gt_right" rowspan="1" colspan="1" scope="col">Real</th>
|
||
</tr>
|
||
</thead>
|
||
<tbody class="gt_table_body">
|
||
<tr><td class="gt_row gt_center">FALSE</td>
|
||
<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.733</td>
|
||
<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.978</td></tr>
|
||
<tr><td class="gt_row gt_center">TRUE</td>
|
||
<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.267</td>
|
||
<td class="gt_row gt_right">0.022</td></tr>
|
||
</tbody>
|
||
|
||
|
||
</table>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</section>
|
||
|
||
</main>
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bodyEl.classList.remove("quarto-dark");
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anchorJS.add('.anchored');
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var currentTitle = button.getAttribute("title");
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button.setAttribute("title", "Copied!");
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</div> <!-- /content -->
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
</body></html> |